Research Area: Microbiology

Parasite research heats up
Greta Friar | Whitehead Institute
July 7, 2020

Apicomplexan parasites infect hundreds of millions of people around the world each year. Several species of apicomplexan parasites in the Plasmodium genus cause malaria, while another apicomplexan species, Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii), causes toxoplasmosis, a disease with flu-like symptoms that can be lethal for people with weakened immune systems. In spite of their impact, the biology of these disease-causing parasites is not very well understood and treatment options for infection are limited.

One potential approach to treat infection could be drugs that disrupt the parasites’ calcium signaling, which they rely on to spread from cell to cell in their hosts. The parasites need an influx of calcium in order to burst out of an infected host cell—a process called egress—and move through the host’s body and invade other cells. In previous work, a researcher from Whitehead Institute Member Sebastian Lourido’s lab, Saima Sidik, had tested a large collection of molecules and identified one called enhancer 1 (ENH1), which perturbed the parasites’ calcium levels and prevented egress, as a promising anti-parasitic lead. However, the original experiments did not determine how ENH1 acts. In research published in the journal ACS Chemical Biology on June 29, Alice Herneisen, a graduate student in Lourido’s lab, and Lourido, who is also an assistant professor of biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, used an approach called thermal proteome profiling to discover how ENH1 prevents T. gondii parasites from egress. They identified the main target of ENH1 as a calcium-dependent molecule called CDPK1 that parasites use to prepare for egress, moving between cells, and invasion of host cells. ENH1 binds to and prevents CDPK1 from functioning.

“Advances over the past few decades have made discovering a molecule’s potentially therapeutic activity much easier, but the next step of figuring out how the molecule works is often still a challenge,” Lourido says. “By applying newer expansive approaches, we are starting to build a more holistic picture of the parasites’ cell biology.”

Understanding the biology responsible for a potential drug’s observed effects is important because most drugs require modification before they are ready for human use—they may need to be made less toxic, more potent, or more amenable to the environment of the human body—and these sorts of modifications cannot be made until the molecule and its activity are understood.

Herneisen decided to use a relatively new approach in parasites, thermal proteome profiling, to discover the targets of ENH1—the molecules it binds to, leading to its therapeutic effects. The approach works by graphing how each of the proteins inside the parasite reacts to changes in heat with and without being exposed to ENH1. One advantage of this approach is that it is unbiased, meaning that instead of researchers picking likely targets up front to test, they investigate as many molecules as possible, which can lead to unexpected findings. For example, Lourido has been investigating CDPK1 in other contexts for many years, and based on his lab’s previous understanding of its role would not have expected it to be a main target of ENH1—such surprises can direct research in exciting new directions.

Although CDPK1 is ENH1’s main target, the investigations did not uncover the target that allows ENH1 to cause oscillations in the parasites’ calcium levels. Finding this missing target is one of the lab’s next goals.

“The fact that ENH1 affects multiple aspects of calcium signaling may be what makes it such an effective antiparasitic agent,” Herneisen says. “It’s messing with the parasites on several levels.”

Translation of the research for clinical testing is a long way off, but there are multiple indicators that this is a promising direction for investigation. Not only is calcium signaling key to the parasites’ life cycle and ability to spread inside of a host, but the molecules and mechanisms that the parasites use to modulate calcium levels are very different from the ones found in mammals. This means that a drug that disrupts the parasites’ calcium signaling is unlikely to interfere with calcium signaling in human patients, and so could be deadly to the parasites without harming the patients’ cells.

Written by Greta Friar

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Sebastian Lourido’s primary affiliation is with Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, where his laboratory is located and all his research is conducted. He is also an assistant professor of biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

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Herneisen, Alice L. et al. “Identifying the target of an antiparasitic compound in Toxoplasma using thermal proteome profiling.” ACS Chemical Biology, June 29, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1021/acschembio.0c00369

Global perspectives on microscopic pathogens

Junior Emily O’Rourke traveled to South Africa to investigate epidemics and returned with a broader outlook on her fundamental disease research.

Raleigh McElvery
March 31, 2020

Growing up in El Paso, Texas near the border of the U.S. and Mexico, Emily O’Rourke could venture across cultures in less time than it takes most people to commute to work. In fact, her dad would make this short trip each day for his job as a mechanical engineer. Watching him cross over so frequently reminded O’Rourke that “ideas and skills don’t stop at the border.” O’Rourke herself would visit Mexico to see relatives, and these experiences seeded aspirations to spearhead international scientific collaborations. Now a junior in Course 7 (Biology), O’Rourke is continuing to add stamps to her passport while exploring the global implications of disease research.

O’Rourke chose MIT because it offered a particularly wide array of study abroad programs, in addition to having top-tier research opportunities. One such study abroad program, MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI), operates 25 regional programs, matching undergraduate and graduate students with fully-funded internship, research, and teaching opportunities in over 40 countries. The summer after her first year, O’Rourke participated in MISTI’s MIT-Italy Program in order to gain some research experience in the realm of urban planning. For six weeks, she investigated the urban effects of sea level rise while living in Venice.

When she returned to campus for her sophomore year, O’Rourke was intending to double major in physics and biology. But she ultimately opted to drop physics and pursue the life sciences once she started working in Becky Lamason’s lab in the Department of Biology.

“I started to see how biology worked on a practical level,” she says. “I get to experience a hands-on connection by running DNA on a gel and doing other experiments. During our weekly lab meetings, I witness scientific stories as they unfold.”

More recently, the duo has begun to examine how Sca4 may coopt another protein in the host cell, known as clathrin, for its own malicious means. “Sca4 is a really big protein and we still don’t know its entire structure,” O’Rourke says, “and we’re hoping to uncover some new functions.”The Lamason lab investigates how parasites hijack host cells processes in order to spread infection. O’Rourke is working with graduate student Cassandra Vondrak to probe the proteins that allow the tick-borne Rickettsia parkeri to migrate from one cell to the next. Their protein of interest, surface cell antigen 4 (Sca4), is secreted by the bacterium and binds to the host’s cell membrane, reducing the tension across the membrane and allowing Rickettsia to punch through to the neighboring cell. O’Rourke and Vondrak aim to determine how Rickettsia releases Sca4, in the hopes of piecing together a general mechanism by which pathogens propagate.

While O’Rourke was studying infectious disease on a cellular level, she heard about an opportunity to explore epidemics on a global scale. Each January, the Harvard-MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology sponsors a two-week class in South Africa called Evolution of an Epidemic. The class, taught by Professor of the Practice Bruce Walker, covers the medical, scientific, and political responses to new diseases, focusing on the HIV/AIDS epidemic. Walker, who is also the director of the Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, is a world leader in the study of immune control and evasion in HIV infection. Since then, he’s developed strong connections and research partnerships in South Africa where the disease is most prevalent.

O’Rourke enrolled in Evolution of an Epidemic, and MISTI helped her to plan her trip. On January 16, she landed in Johannesburg, the first of three destinations. The cohort of students from MIT, Harvard, and the African Leadership Academy attended lectures, spoke with patients, and met medical professionals.

After Johannesburg, the class traveled to Durban where they visited traditional healers who were learning to administer HIV/AIDS tests as part of the iTeach program.

“We had the chance to ask these healers how they felt about interacting with Western medicine, and whether it clashed with their traditional values,” O’Rourke says. “They said HIV was so new that they couldn’t draw upon ancient wisdom from their ancestors to treat it. They were directing patients towards Western treatments because they’d seen the devastation the disease could cause.”

iTeach building
The iTEACH Program located in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

At their third and final destination, the province of KwaZulu-Natal, O’Rourke toured the FRESH Program. Twice a week, as part of a clinical trial, healthy African women around O’Rourke’s age attend classes that address topics like self-esteem, gender-based violence, HIV prevention, career development, and computer training. Before each session, the women are tested for HIV/AIDS, so if they contract it the researchers can treat it early and learn more about the disease’s initial stages.

“I really liked going there because it helped me see a direct connection between science and social good,” O’Rourke says. “It showed the value of talking to patients and asking about their experiences, rather than just looking at study outcomes.”

After two weeks, O’Rourke returned to MIT Biology and the Lamason lab with a broader outlook on her parasite research. “I’m able to see how my works fits into a larger context,” she says, “and how it may eventually have far-reaching impacts on disease evolution and spread.”

O’Rourke still plans to pursue fundamental biological research, but intends to seek out international collaborations focused on global health as well. It’s hard to leave the MIT bubble, she says, but it’s worth it. “Traveling can really broaden your perspective as a scientist, and inform your research in unexpected ways.”

Photos courtesy of Emily O’Rourke
Posted 4.1.20
Bacterial enzyme could become a new target for antibiotics

Scientists discover the structure of an enzyme, found in the human gut, that breaks down a component of collagen.

Anne Trafton | MIT News Office
March 17, 2020

MIT and Harvard University chemists have discovered the structure of an unusual bacterial enzyme that can break down an amino acid found in collagen, which is the most abundant protein in the human body.

The enzyme, known as hydroxy-L-proline dehydratase (HypD), has been found in a few hundred species of bacteria that live in the human gut, including Clostridioides difficile. The enzyme performs a novel chemical reaction that dismantles hydroxy-L-proline, the molecule that gives collagen its tough, triple-helix structure.

Now that researchers know the structure of the enzyme, they can try to develop drugs that inhibit it. Such a drug could be useful in treating C. difficile infections, which are resistant to many existing antibiotics.

“This is very exciting because this enzyme doesn’t exist in humans, so it could be a potential target,” says Catherine Drennan, an MIT professor of chemistry and biology and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Investigator. “If you could potentially inhibit that enzyme, that could be a unique antibiotic.”

Drennan and Emily Balskus, a professor of chemistry and chemical biology at Harvard University, are the senior authors of the study, which appears today in the journal eLife. MIT graduate student Lindsey Backman and former Harvard graduate student Yolanda Huang are the lead authors of the study.

A difficult reaction

The HypD enzyme is part of a large family of proteins called glycyl radical enzymes. These enzymes work in an unusual way, by converting a molecule of glycine, the simplest amino acid, into a radical — a molecule that has one unpaired electron. Because radicals are very unstable and reactive, they can be used as cofactors, which are molecules that help drive a chemical reaction that would otherwise be difficult to perform.

These enzymes work best in environments that don’t have a lot of oxygen, such as the human gut. The Human Microbiome Project, which has sequenced thousands of bacterial genes from species found in the human gut, has yielded several different types of glycyl radical enzymes, including HypD.

In a previous study, Balskus and researchers at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard discovered that HypD can break down hydroxy-L-proline into a precursor of proline, one of the essential amino acids, by removing the hydroxy modification as a molecule of water. These bacteria can ultimately use proline to generate ATP, a molecule that cells use to store energy, through a process called amino acid fermentation.

HypD has been found in about 360 species of bacteria that live in the human gut, and in this study, Drennan and her colleagues used X-ray crystallography to analyze the structure of the version of HypD found in C. difficile. In 2011, this species of bacteria was responsible for about half a million infections and 29,000 deaths in the United States.

The researchers were able to determine which region of the protein forms the enzyme’s “active site,” which is where the reaction occurs. Once hydroxy-L-proline binds to the active site, a nearby glycine molecule forms a glycyl radical that can pass that radical onto the hydroxy-L-proline, leading to the elimination of the hydroxy group.

Removing a hydroxy group is usually a difficult reaction that requires a large input of energy.

“By transferring a radical to hydroxy-L-proline, it lowers the energetic barrier and allows for that reaction to occur pretty rapidly,” Backman says. “There’s no other known enzyme that can perform this kind of chemistry.”

New drug target

It appears that once bacteria perform this reaction, they divert proline into their own metabolic pathways to help them grow. Therefore, blocking this enzyme could slow down the bacteria’s growth. This could be an advantage in controlling C. difficile, which often exists in small numbers in the human gut but can cause illness if the population becomes too large. This sometimes occurs after antibiotic treatment that wipes out other species and allows C. difficile to proliferate.

“C. difficile can be in your gut without causing problems — it’s when you have too much of it compared to other bacteria that it becomes more problematic,” Drennan says. “So, the idea is that by targeting this enzyme, you could limit the resources of C. difficile, without necessarily killing it.”

The researchers now hope to begin designing drug candidates that could inhibit HypD, by targeting the elements of the protein structure that appear to be the most important in carrying out its function.

The research was funded by the National Institutes of Health, a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship, Harvard University, a Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering, the NSERC Postgraduate Scholarship-Doctoral Program, an Arnold O. Beckman Postdoctoral Fellowship, a Dow Fellowship, and a Gilliam Fellowship from the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.

Exploring How Cells Repair and Tolerate DNA Damage
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
March 2, 2020

Graham Walker, Ph.D., studies the processes cells use to repair and tolerate DNA damage from environmental pollutants. For more than 40 years, he has worked to understand how cells respond to DNA damage, and how these processes can introduce mutations that lead to cancer and other human diseases.

His current NIEHS-funded work focuses on translesion synthesis (TLS). This damage tolerance process allows specialized enzymes that copy DNA, called TLS DNA polymerases, to replicate past lesions in damaged DNA. The process can help cells tolerate environmental DNA damage, but because TLS polymerases frequently insert the wrong DNA base, they can also lead to DNA mutations.

“The TLS process is critically important to human health because it helps cells survive DNA damage, but it can come at a cost,” said Walker. “It isn’t the kind of repair system you would think we would want because it makes a lot of mistakes. However, as we drill into these details, we are finding that there is so much more to be learned than just the strict biochemistry.”

In 2017, Walker was one of eight environmental health scientists to receive an inaugural Revolutionizing Innovative, Visionary Environmental Health Research (RIVER) Outstanding Investigator Award from NIEHS. The grant, which funds researchers rather than specific projects, provides Walker with flexibility to explore novel directions in his research.

From the Ames Test to TLS

Walker was drawn into the world of DNA repair and mutagenesis as a postdoctoral fellow at the University of California, Berkeley, under the guidance of Bruce Ames, Ph.D. Ames’ group created the Ames test, still used today, to determine whether a given chemical is likely to cause cancer. The Ames test uses bacterial strains that include a derivative of a naturally occurring drug-resistant plasmid, a small circular DNA molecule, known as pKM101. This molecule significantly increases the mutation rate of bacterial genes in response to chemical exposures, playing an important role in this quick and convenient test to estimate carcinogenic potential.

“I decided there must be something really interesting on that plasmid because it led to much higher mutation rates in bacteria for the same amount of damage,” said Walker.

After arriving at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, his current employer, Walker continued to study the mechanisms behind these mutations.

Walker and his research team discovered the specific genes of pKM101 that are needed for it to produce more mutations. They showed that these genes are orthologs, or genes that evolved from a common ancestral gene, in the Escherichia coli (E. coli) chromosome that are required for the bacteria to mutate in response to DNA damage. This work helped lay the groundwork for the discovery of TLS DNA polymerases and how they are controlled.

“When we first sequenced these genes, nothing like them had been previously reported, but subsequently more and more related genes were discovered in all domains of life,” said Walker. “After decades of work by many labs, we now know that these are all TLS DNA polymerases and that the pKM101 plasmid encodes a polymerase that is responsible for the increased mutations.”

Using Bacteria to Understand DNA Damage

Walker’s prior research on the mutagenesis-enhancing function of pKM101 also led him to analyze E. coli’s SOS system, a set of biological responses that are activated to rescue cells from severe DNA damage. Walker and his team identified genes turned on by DNA damage that are regulated as part of E. coli’s SOS response. Many of the genes encode functions involved in DNA repair or mutagenesis. This work on the SOS response of E. coli was the first to directly demonstrate, in any organism, that DNA damage from environmental sources can change gene expression.

By further exploring TLS DNA polymerases in E. coli, he also identified the biological role of one of the most conserved DNA-damage response enzymes, DinB, which encodes a TLS DNA polymerase, and reported that the gene is required for resistance to some DNA-damaging agents. His work on DinB also suggested an additional mechanism by which antibiotics can become toxic to bacterial cells.

Blocking TLS in Cancer

“While a postdoc in the mid 1970’s with Bruce Ames, my ambitious hope was that by studying pKM101, I would learn something about the fundamental mechanism of how mutations arose in bacteria and humans, and might even learn how to control it,” said Walker. “That is now happening with my current, NIEHS-funded work.”

Some tumors can withstand damage from chemotherapy drugs by relying on TLS, which allows them to survive by replicating past damaged DNA caused by the drugs. In eukaryotes, including humans, mutagenic TLS is carried by two TLS DNA polymerases known as Rev1 and Pol zeta.

In addition to his innovative research, Walker is devoted to improving education and helping undergraduate students. In 2002, Walker became a Howard Hughes Medical Institute Professor and used his funding to establish a science education group modeled on his laboratory research group.

“I feel that training the next generations of scientists is as important as the science itself, and I have been incredibly lucky to have a spectacular set of grad students and post docs work with me over the years,” said Walker. “I have tried to focus as much on training, through teaching and mentoring, as on advancing the science.”

“Not only are these TLS polymerases responsible for introducing a lot of mutations that cause cancer, they also help cancer cells survive in the face of chemotherapy drugs that introduce DNA damage that would otherwise kill them,” said Walker.

Recently, Walker and his colleagues discovered that a small molecule and compound known as JH-RE-06 can block the Rev1-Pol zeta mutagenic TLS pathway by interfering with the ability of the Rev1 domain to recruit Pol zeta. The researchers tested the molecule in human cancer cell lines and showed that it enhanced the ability of several different types of chemotherapy to kill cancer cells, while also suppressing their ability to mutate in the presence of DNA-damaging drugs. In a mouse model of human melanoma, they found that not only did the tumors stop growing in mice treated with a combination of the chemotherapy drug cisplatin and JH-RE-06, those mice also survived longer.

“I am able to take more chances and try more high-risk experiments with the RIVER award,” said Walker. “The flexibility and extra resources are now allowing me to identify TLS inhibitors, which are offering startlingly unexpected mechanistic insights and also show potential to improve chemotherapy.”

Testing the waters

MIT sophomore Rachel Shen looks for microscopic solutions to big environmental challenges.

Lucy Jakub | Department of Biology
January 28, 2020

In 2010, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began restoring the Broad Meadows salt marsh in Quincy, Massachusetts. The marsh, which had grown over with invasive reeds and needed to be dredged, abutted the Broad Meadows Middle School, and its three-year transformation fascinated one inquisitive student. “I was always super curious about what sorts of things were going on there,” says Rachel Shen, who was in eighth grade when they finally finished the project. She’d spend hours watching birds in the marsh, and catching minnows by the beach.

In her bedroom at home, she kept an eye on four aquariums furnished with anubias, hornwort, guppy grass, amazon swords, and “too many snails.” Now, living in a dorm as a sophomore at MIT, she’s had to scale back to a single one-gallon tank. But as a Course 7 (Biology) major minoring in environmental and sustainability studies, she gets an even closer look at the natural world, seeing what most of us can’t: the impurities in our water, the matrices of plant cells, and the invisible processes that cycle nutrients in the oceans.

Shen’s love for nature has always been coupled with scientific inquiry. Growing up, she took part in Splash and Spark workshops for grade schoolers, taught by MIT students. “From a young age, I was always that kid catching bugs,” she says. In her junior year of high school, she landed the perfect summer internship through Boston University’s GROW program: studying ant brains at BU’s Traniello lab. Within a colony, ants with different morphological traits perform different jobs as workers, guards, and drones. To see how the brains of these castes might be wired differently, Shen dosed the ants with serotonin and dopamine and looked for differences in the ways the neurotransmitters altered the ants’ social behavior.

This experience in the Traniello lab later connected Shen to her first campus job working for MITx Biology, which develops online courses and educational resources for students with Department of Biology faculty. Darcy Gordon, one of the administrators for GROW and a postdoc at the Traniello Lab, joined MITx Biology as a digital learning fellow just as Shen was beginning her first year. MITx was looking for students to beta-test their biochemistry course, and Gordon encouraged Shen to apply. “I’d never taken a biochem course before, but I had enough background to pick it up,” says Shen, who is always willing to try something new. She went through the entire course, giving feedback on lesson clarity and writing practice problems.

Using what she learned on the job, she’s now the biochem leader on a student project with the It’s On Us Data Sciences club (formerly Project ORCA) to develop a live map of water contamination by rigging autonomous boats with pollution sensors. Environmental restoration has always been important to her, but it was on her trip to the Navajo Nation with her first-year advisory group, Terrascope, that Shen saw the effects of water scarcity and contamination firsthand. She and her peers devised filtration and collection methods to bring to the community, but she found the most valuable part of the project to be “working with the people, and coming up with solutions that incorporated their local culture and local politics.”

Through the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP), Shen has put her problem-solving skills to work in the lab. Last summer, she interned at Draper and the Velásquez-García Group in MIT’s Microsystems Technologies Laboratories. Through experiments, she observed how plant cells can be coaxed with hormones to reinforce their cell walls with lignin and cellulose, becoming “woody” — insights that can be used in the development of biomaterials.

For her next UROP, she sought out a lab where she could work alongside a larger team, and was drawn to the people in the lab of Sallie “Penny” Chisholm in MIT’s departments of Biology and Civil and Environmental Engineering, who study the marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus. “I really feel like I could learn a lot from them,” Shen says. “They’re great at explaining things.”

Prochlorococcus is one of the most abundant photosynthesizers in the ocean. Cyanobacteria are mixotrophs, which means they get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis, but can also take up nutrients like carbon and nitrogen from their environment. One source of carbon and nitrogen is found in chitin, the insoluble biopolymer that crustaceans and other marine organisms use to build their shells and exoskeletons. Billions of tons of chitin are produced in the oceans every year, and nearly all of it is recycled back into carbon, nitrogen, and minerals by marine bacteria, allowing it to be used again.

Shen is investigating whether Prochlorococcus also recycles chitin, like its close relative Synechococcus that secretes enzymes which can break down the polymer. In the lab’s grow room, she tends to test tubes that glow green with cyanobacteria. She’ll introduce chitin to half of the cultures to see if specific genes in Prochlorococcus are expressed that might be implicated in chitin degradation, and identify those genes with RNA sequencing.

Shen says working with Prochlorococcus is exciting because it’s a case study in which the smallest cellular processes of a species can have huge effects in its ecosystem. Cracking the chitin cycle would have implications for humans, too. Biochemists have been trying to turn chitin into a biodegradable alternative to plastic. “One thing I want to get out of my science education is learning the basic science,” she says, “but it’s really important to me that it has direct applications.”

Something else Shen has realized at MIT is that, whatever she ends up doing with her degree, she wants her research to involve fieldwork that takes her out into nature — maybe even back to the marsh, to restore shorelines and waterways. As she puts it, “something that’s directly relevant to people.” But she’s keeping her options open. “Currently I’m just trying to explore pretty much everything.”

The new front against antibiotic resistance

Deborah Hung shares research strategies to combat tuberculosis as part of the Department of Biology's IAP seminar series on microbes in health and disease.

Lucy Jakub | Department of Biology
January 21, 2020

After Alexander Fleming discovered the antibiotic penicillin in 1928, spurring a “golden age” of drug development, many scientists thought infectious disease would become a horror of the past. But as antibiotics have been overprescribed and used without adhering to strict regimens, bacterial strains have evolved new defenses that render previously effective drugs useless. Tuberculosis, once held at bay, has surpassed HIV/AIDS as the leading cause of death from infectious disease worldwide. And research in the lab hasn’t caught up to the needs of the clinic. In recent years, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has approved only one or two new antibiotics annually.

While these frustrations have led many scientists and drug developers to abandon the field, researchers are finally making breakthroughs in the discovery of new antibiotics. On Jan. 9, the Department of Biology hosted a talk by one of the chemical biologists who won’t quit: Deborah Hung, core member and co-director of the Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program at the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, and associate professor in the Department of Genetics at Harvard Medical School.

Each January during Independent Activities Period, the Department of Biology organizes a seminar series that highlights cutting-edge research in biology. Past series have included talks on synthetic and quantitative biology. This year’s theme is Microbes in Health and Disease. The team of student organizers, led by assistant professor of biology Omer Yilmaz, chose to explore our growing understanding of microbes as both pathogens and symbionts in the body. Hung’s presentation provided an invigorating introduction to the series.

“Deborah is an international pioneer in developing tools and discovering new biology on the interaction between hosts and pathogens,” Yilmaz says. “She’s done a lot of work on tuberculosis as well as other bacterial infections. So it’s a privilege for us to host her talk.”

A clinician as well as a chemical biologist, Hung understands firsthand the urgent need for new drugs. In her talk, she addressed the conventional approaches to finding new antibiotics, and why they’ve been failing scientists for decades.

“The rate of resistance is actually far outpacing our ability to discover new antibiotics,” she said. “I’m beginning to see patients [and] I have to tell them, I’m sorry, we have no antibiotics left.”

The way Hung sees it, there are two long-term goals in the fight against infectious disease. The first is to find a method that will greatly speed up the discovery of new antibiotics. The other is to think beyond antibiotics altogether, and find other ways to strengthen our bodies against intruders and increase patient survival.

Last year, in pursuit of the first goal, Hung spearheaded a multi-institutional collaboration to develop a new high-throughput screening method called PROSPECT (PRimary screening Of Strains to Prioritize Expanded Chemistry and Targets). By weakening the expression of genes essential to survival in the tuberculosis bacterium, researchers genetically engineered over 400 unique “hypomorphs,” vulnerable in different ways, that could be screened in large batches against tens of thousands of chemical compounds using PROSPECT.

With this approach, it’s possible to identify effective drug candidates 10 times faster than ever before. Some of the compounds Hung’s team has discovered, in addition to those that hit well-known targets like DNA gyrase and the cell wall, are able to kill tuberculosis in novel ways, such as disabling the bacterium’s molecular efflux pump.

But one of the challenges to antibiotic discovery is that the drugs that will kill a disease in a test tube won’t necessarily kill the disease in a patient. In order to address her second goal of strengthening our bodies against disease-causing microbes, Hung and her lab are now using zebrafish embryos to screen small molecules not just for their extermination of a pathogen, but for the survival of the host. This way, they can investigate drugs that have no effect on bacteria in a test tube but, in Hung’s words, “throw a wrench in the system” and interact with the host’s cells to provide immunity.

For much of the 20th century, microbes were primarily studied as agents of harm. But, more recent research into the microbiome — the trillions of organisms that inhabit our skin, gut, and cavities — has illuminated their complex and often symbiotic relationship with our immune system and bodily functions, which antibiotics can disrupt. The other three talks in the series, featuring researchers from Harvard Medical School, delve into the connections between the microbiome and colorectal cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, and stem cells.

“We’re just starting to scratch the surface of the dance between these different microbes, both good and bad, and their role in different aspects of organismal health, in terms of regeneration and other diseases such as cancer and infection,” Yilmaz says.

For those in the audience, these seminars are more than just a way to pass an afternoon during IAP. Hung addressed the audience as potential future collaborators, and she stressed that antibiotic research needs all hands on deck.

“It’s always a work in progress for us,” she said. “If any of you are very computationally-minded or really interested in looking at these large datasets of chemical-genetic interactions, come see me. We are always looking for new ideas and great minds who want to try to take this on.”

Putting a finger on the switch of chronic parasite infection
Greta Friar | Whitehead Institute
January 16, 2020

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a parasite that chronically infects up to a quarter of the world’s population, causing toxoplasmosis, a disease that can be dangerous, or even deadly, for the immunocompromised and for developing fetuses. One reason that T. gondii is so pervasive is that the parasites are tenacious occupants once they have infected a host. They can transition from an acute infection stage into a quiescent life cycle stage and effectively barricade themselves inside of their host’s cells. In this protected state, they become impossible to eliminate, leading to long term infection. Researchers used to think that a combination of genes were involved in triggering the parasite’s transition into its chronic stage, due to the complexity of the process and because a gene essential for differentiation had not been identified. However, new research from Whitehead Institute Member Sebastian Lourido, who is also an assistant professor of biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and graduate student Benjamin Waldman has identified a sole gene whose protein product is the master regulator, which is both necessary and sufficient for the parasites to make the switch. Their findings, which appear online in the journal Cell on January 16, illuminate an important aspect of the parasite’s biology and provide researchers with the tools to control whether and when T. gondii transitions, or undergoes differentiation. These tools may prove valuable for treating toxoplasmosis, since preventing the parasites from assuming their chronic form keeps them susceptible to both treatment and elimination by the immune system.

T. gondii spreads when a potential host, which can be any warm-blooded animal, ingests infected tissue from another animal—in the case of humans, by eating undercooked meat or unwashed vegetables—or when the parasite’s progeny are shed by an infected cat, T. gondii’s target host for sexual reproduction. When T. gondii parasites first invade the body, they are in a quickly replicating part of their life cycle, called the tachyzoite stage. Tachyzoites invade a cell, isolate themselves by forming a sealed compartment from the cell’s membrane, and then replicate inside of it until the cell explodes, at which point they move on to another cell to repeat the process. Although the tachyzoite stage is when the parasites do the most damage, it’s also when they are easily targetable by the immune system and medical therapies. In order for the parasites to make their stay more permanent, they must differentiate into bradyzoites, a slow-growing stage, during which they are less susceptible to drugs and have too little effect on the body to trigger the immune system. Bradyzoites construct an extra thick wall to isolate their compartment in the host cell and encyst themselves inside of it. This reservoir of parasites remains dormant and undetectable, until, under favorable conditions, they can spring back into action, attacking their host or spreading to new ones.

Although the common theory was that multiple genes collectively orchestrate the transition from tachyzoite to bradyzoite, Lourido and Waldman suspected that there was instead a single master regulator.

“Differentiation is not something a parasite wants to do halfway, which could leave them vulnerable,” Waldman says. “Multiple genes means more chances for things to go wrong, so you would want a master regulator to ensure that differentiation happens cleanly.”

To investigate this hypothesis, Waldman used CRISPR-based screens to knock out T. gondii genes, and then tested to see if the parasite could still differentiate from tachyzoite to bradyzoite. Waldman monitored whether the parasites were differentiating by developing a strain of T. gondii that fluoresces in its bradyzoite stage. The researchers also performed a first of its kind single-cell RNA sequencing of T. gondii in collaboration with members of Alex Shalek’s lab in the department of chemistry at MIT. This sequencing allowed the researchers to profile the genes’ activity at each stage in unprecedented detail, shedding light on changes in gene expression during the parasite’s cell-cycle progression and differentiation.

The experiments identified one gene, which the researchers named Bradyzoite-Formation Deficient 1 (BFD1), as the only gene both sufficient and necessary to prevent the transition from tachyzoite to bradyzoite: the master regulator. Not only was T. gondii unable to make the transition without the BFD1 protein, but Waldman found that artificially increasing its production induced the parasites to become bradyzoites, even without the usual stress triggers required to cue the switch. This means that the researchers can now control Toxoplasma differentiation in the lab.

These findings may inform research into potential therapies for toxoplasmosis, or even a vaccine.

“Toxoplasma that can’t differentiate is a good candidate for a live vaccine, because the immune system can eliminate an acute infection very effectively,” Lourido says.

The researchers’ findings also have implications for food production. T. gondii and other cyst-forming parasites that use BFD1 can infect livestock. Further research into the gene could inform the development of vaccines for farm animals as well as humans.

“Chronic infection is a huge hurdle to curing many parasitic diseases,” Lourido says. “We need to study and figure out how to manipulate the transition from the acute to chronic stages in order to eradicate these diseases.”

This study was supported by an NIH Director’s Early Independence Award (1DP5OD017892), a grant from the Mathers Foundation, the Searle Scholars Program, the Beckman Young Investigator Program, a Sloan Fellowship in Chemistry, the NIH (1DP2GM119419, 2U19AI089992, 5U24AI118672), and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.

Written by Greta Friar

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Sebastian Lourido’s primary affiliation is with Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, where his laboratory is located and all his research is conducted. He is also an assistant professor of biology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

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Citation:

“Identification of a master regulator of differentiation in Toxoplasma”

Cell, online January 16, DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.12.013

Benjamin S. Waldman (1,2), Dominic Schwarz (1,3), Marc H. Wadsworth II (4,5,6), Jeroen P. Saeij (7), Alex K. Shalek (4,5,6), Sebastian Lourido (1,2)

1. Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA

2. Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA

3. Institute of Pharmacy and Molecular Biotechnology, University of Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 364, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany

4. Institute for Medical Engineering & Science (IMES), Department of Chemistry, and Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.

5. Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA

6. Ragon Institute of MGH, MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02319, USA

7. Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA

Building a platform to image membrane proteins

Biologists devise an efficient method to prepare fluorescently tagged proteins and simulate their native environment.

Raleigh McElvery | Department of Biology
December 18, 2019

All cells have a lipid membrane that encircles their internal components — forming a protective barrier to control what gets in and what stays out. The proteins embedded in these membranes are essential for life; they help facilitate nutrient transport, energy conversion and storage, and cellular communication. They are also important in human disease, and represent around 60 percent of approved drug targets. In order to study these membrane proteins outside the complexity of the cell, researchers must use detergent to strip away the membrane and extract them. However, determining the best detergent for each protein can involve extensive trial and error. And, removing a protein from its natural environment risks destabilizing the folded structure and disrupting function.

In a study published on Dec. 9 in Cell Chemical Biology, scientists from MIT devised a rapid and generalizable way to extract, purify, and label membrane proteins for imaging without any detergent at all — bringing along a portion of the surrounding membrane to protect the protein and simulate its natural environment. Their approach combines well-established chemical and biochemical techniques in a new way, efficiently isolating the protein so it can be fluorescently labeled and examined under a microscope.

“I always joke that it’s not very lifelike to study proteins in soap,” says senior author Barbara Imperiali, a professor of biology and chemistry. “We’ve created a workflow that allows membrane proteins to be imaged while maintaining their native identities and interactions. Hopefully now fewer people will shy away from studying membrane proteins, given their importance in many physiological processes.”

As a member of the Imperiali lab, former postdoc and lead author Jean-Marie Swiecicki investigated membrane proteins from the foodborne pathogen Campylobacter jejuni. In this study, Swiecicki focused on PglC and PglA, two membrane proteins that play a role in enabling the bacteria to infect human cells. His experiments required labeling PglC and PglA with fluorescent tags in order to track them. However, he wasn’t satisfied with existing methods to do so.

In some cases, the fluorescent tags that must be incorporated into the protein in order to visualize it are too large to be placed at defined positions. In other cases, these tags don’t shine brightly enough, or interfere with the structure and function of the protein.

To avoid such issues, Swiecicki decided to use a method known as “unnatural amino-acid mutagenesis.” Amino acids are the units that compose the protein, and unnatural amino-acid mutagenesis involves adding a new amino acid containing an engineered chemical group within the protein sequence. This chemical group can then be labeled with a brightly glowing tag.

Swiecicki inserted the genetic code for the C. jejuni membrane proteins into a different bacterium, Escherichia coli. Inside E. coli, he could incorporate the unnatural amino acid, which could be chemically modified to add the fluorescent label.

When it came time to remove the proteins from the membrane, he substituted a different substance for the detergent: a polymer of styrene-maleic acid (SMA). Unlike detergent, SMA wraps the extracted protein and a small segment of the associated membrane in a protective shell, preserving its native environment. Imperiali explains, “It’s like a scarf protecting your neck from the cold.”

Swiecicki could then monitor the glowing proteins under a microscope to verify his technique was selective enough to isolate individual membrane proteins. The entire process, he says, takes just a few days, and is generally much faster and more reliable than detergent-based extraction methods, which can take months and require the expertise of highly-trained biochemists to optimize.

“I wouldn’t say it’s a magic bullet that’s going to work for every single protein,” he says. “But it’s a highly efficient tool that could make it easier to study many different kinds of membrane proteins.” Eventually, he says, it may even help facilitate high throughput drug screens.

“As someone who works on membrane protein complexes, I can attest to the great need for better methods to study them,” says Suzanne Walker, a professor of microbiology at Harvard Medical School who was not involved in the study. She hopes to extend the approach outlined in the paper to the protein complexes she investigates in her own lab. “I appreciated the extensive detail included in the text about how to apply the strategy successfully,” she adds.

The next steps will be testing the technique on mammalian proteins, and isolating multiple proteins at once in the SMA shell to observe their interactions. And, of course, every new technique deserves a name. “We’re still working on a catchy acronym,” Imperiali says. “Any ideas?”

This research was funded by the Jane Coffin Childs Memorial Fund for Medical Research, Philippe Foundation, and National Institutes of Health.

Biologists build proteins that avoid crosstalk with existing molecules

Engineered signaling pathways could offer a new way to build synthetic biology circuits.

Anne Trafton | MIT News Office
October 23, 2019

Inside a living cell, many important messages are communicated via interactions between proteins. For these signals to be accurately relayed, each protein must interact only with its specific partner, avoiding unwanted crosstalk with any similar proteins.

A new MIT study sheds light on how cells are able to prevent crosstalk between these proteins, and also shows that there remains a huge number of possible protein interactions that cells have not used for signaling. This means that synthetic biologists could generate new pairs of proteins that can act as artificial circuits for applications such as diagnosing disease, without interfering with cells’ existing signaling pathways.

“Using our high-throughput approach, you can generate many orthogonal versions of a particular interaction, allowing you to see how many different insulated versions of that protein complex can be built,” says Conor McClune, an MIT graduate student and the lead author of the study.

In the new paper, which appears today in Nature, the researchers produced novel pairs of signaling proteins and demonstrated how they can be used to link new signals to new outputs by engineering E. coli cells that produce yellow fluorescence after encountering a specific plant hormone.

Michael Laub, an MIT professor of biology, is the senior author of the study. Other authors are recent MIT graduate Aurora Alvarez-Buylla and Christopher Voigt, the Daniel I.C. Wang Professor of Advanced Biotechnology.

New combinations

In this study, the researchers focused on a type of signaling pathway called two-component signaling, which is found in bacteria and some other organisms. A wide variety of two-component pathways has evolved through a process in which cells duplicate genes for signaling proteins they already have, and then mutate them, creating families of similar proteins.

“It’s intrinsically advantageous for organisms to be able to expand this small number of signaling families quite dramatically, but it runs the risk that you’re going to have crosstalk between these systems that are all very similar,” Laub says. “It then becomes an interesting challenge for cells: How do you maintain the fidelity of information flow, and how do you couple specific inputs to specific outputs?”

Most of these signaling pairs consist of an enzyme called a kinase and its substrate, which is activated by the kinase. Bacteria can have dozens or even hundreds of these protein pairs relaying different signals.

About 10 years ago, Laub showed that the specificity between bacterial kinases and their substrates is determined by only five amino acids in each of the partner proteins. This raised the question of whether cells have already used up, or are coming close to using up, all of the possible unique combinations that won’t interfere with existing pathways.

Some previous studies from other labs had suggested that the possible number of interactions that would not interfere with each other might be running out, but the evidence was not definitive. The MIT researchers decided to take a systematic approach in which they began with one pair of existing E. coli signaling proteins, known as PhoQ and PhoP, and then introduced mutations in the regions that determine their specificity.

This yielded more than 10,000 pairs of proteins. The researchers tested each kinase to see if they would activate any of the substrates, and identified about 200 pairs that interact with each other but not the parent proteins, the other novel pairs, or any other type of kinase-substrate family found in E. coli.

“What we found is that it’s pretty easy to find combinations that will work, where two proteins interact to transduce a signal and they don’t talk to anything else inside the cell,” Laub says.

He now plans to try to reconstruct the evolutionary history that has led to certain protein pairs being used by cells while many other possible combinations have not naturally evolved.

Synthetic circuits

This study also offers a new strategy for creating new synthetic biology circuits based on protein pairs that don’t crosstalk with other cellular proteins, the researchers say. To demonstrate that possibility, they took one of their new protein pairs and modified the kinase so that it would be activated by a plant hormone called trans-zeatin, and engineered the substrate so that it would glow yellow when the kinase activated it.

“This shows that we can overcome one of the challenges of putting a synthetic circuit in a cell, which is that the cell is already filled with signaling proteins,” Voigt says. “When we try to move a sensor or circuit between species, one of the biggest problems is that it interferes with the pathways already there.”

One possible application for this new approach is designing circuits that detect the presence of other microbes. Such circuits could be useful for creating probiotic bacteria that could help diagnose infectious diseases.

“Bacteria can be engineered to sense and respond to their environment, with widespread applications such as ‘smart’ gut bacteria that could diagnose and treat inflammation, diabetes, or cancer, or soil microbes that maintain proper nitrogen levels and eliminate the need for fertilizer. To build such bacteria, synthetic biologists require genetically encoded ‘sensors,’” says Jeffrey Tabor, an associate professor of bioengineering and biosciences at Rice University.

“One of the major limitations of synthetic biology has been our genetic parts failing in new organisms for reasons that we don’t understand (like cross-talk). What this paper shows is that there is a lot of space available to re-engineer circuits so that this doesn’t happen,” says Tabor, who was not involved in the research.

If adapted for use in human cells, this approach could also help researchers design new ways to program human T cells to destroy cancer cells. This type of therapy, known as CAR-T cell therapy, has been approved to treat some blood cancers and is being developed for other cancers as well.

Although the signaling proteins involved would be different from those in this study, “the same principle applies in that the therapeutic relies on our ability to take sets of engineered proteins and put them into a novel genomic context, and hope that they don’t interfere with pathways already in the cells,” McClune says.

The research was funded by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute, the Office of Naval Research, and the National Institutes of Health Pre-Doctoral Training Grant.

A new way to block unwanted genetic transfer

Researchers identify a strategy to prevent mobile genetic elements from breaching the bacterial cell wall.

Raleigh McElvery | Department of Biology
August 6, 2019

We receive half of our genes from each biological parent, so there’s no avoiding inheriting a blend of characteristics from both. Yet, for single-celled organisms like bacteria that reproduce by splitting into two identical cells, injecting variety into the gene pool isn’t so easy. Random mutations add some diversity, but there’s a much faster way for bacteria to reshuffle their genes and confer evolutionary advantages like antibiotic resistance or pathogenicity.

Known as horizontal gene transfer, this process permits bacteria to pass pieces of DNA to their peers, in some cases allowing those genes to be integrated into the recipient’s genome and passed down to the next generation.

The Grossman lab in the MIT Department of Biology studies one class of mobile DNA, known as integrative and conjugative elements (ICEs). While ICEs contain genes that can be beneficial to the recipient bacterium, there’s also a catch — receiving a duplicate copy of an ICE is wasteful, and possibly lethal. The biologists recently uncovered a new system by which one particular ICE, ICEBs1, blocks a donor bacterium from delivering a second, potentially deadly copy.

“Understanding how these elements function and how they’re regulated will allow us to determine what drives microbial evolution,” says Alan Grossman, department head and senior author on the study. “These findings not only provide insight into how bacteria block unwanted genetic transfer, but also how we might eventually engineer this system to our own advantage.”

Former graduate student Monika Avello PhD ’18 and current graduate student Kathleen Davis are co-first authors on the study, which appeared online in Molecular Microbiology on July 30.

Checks and balances

Although plasmids are perhaps the best-known mediators of horizontal transfer, ICEs not only outnumber plasmids in most bacterial species, they also come with their own tools to exit the donor, enter the recipient, and integrate themselves into the recipient’s chromosome. Once the donor bacterium makes contact with the recipient, the machinery encoded by the ICE can pump the ICE DNA from one cell to the other through a tiny channel.

For horizontal transfer to proceed, there are physical barriers to overcome, especially in so-called Gram-positive bacteria, which boast thicker cell walls than their Gram-negative counterparts, despite being less widely studied. According to Davis, the transfer machinery essentially has to “punch a hole” through the recipient cell. “It’s a rough ride and a waste of energy for the recipient if that cell already contains an ICE with a specific set of genes,” she says.

Sure, ICEs are “selfish bits of DNA” that persist by spreading themselves as widely as possible, but in order to do so they must not interfere with their host cell’s ability to survive. As Avello explains, ICEs can’t just disseminate their DNA “without certain checks and balances.”

“There comes a point where this transfer comes at a cost to the bacteria or doesn’t make sense for the element,” she says. “This study is beginning to get at the question of when, why, and how ICEs might want to block transfer.”

The Grossman lab works in the Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis, and had previously discovered two mechanisms by which ICEBs1 could prevent redundant transfer before it becomes lethal. The first, cell-cell signaling, involves the ICE in the recipient cell releasing a chemical cue that prohibits the donor’s transfer machinery from being assembled. The second, immunity, initiates if the duplicate copy is already inside the cell, and prevents the replicate from being integrated into the chromosome.

However, when the researchers tried eliminating both fail-safes simultaneously, rather than re-instating ICE transfer as they expected, the bacteria still managed to obstruct the duplicate copy. ICEBs1 seemed to have a third blocking strategy, but what might it be?

The third tactic

In this most recent study, they’ve identified the mysterious blocking mechanism as a type of “entry exclusion,” whereby the ICE in the recipient cell encodes molecular machinery that physically prevents the second copy from breaching the cell wall. Scientists had observed other mobile genetic elements capable of exclusion, but this was the first time anyone had witnessed this phenomenon for an ICE from Gram-positive bacteria, according to Avello.

The Grossman lab determined that this exclusion mechanism comes down to two key proteins. Avello identified the first protein, YddJ, expressed by the ICEBs1 in the recipient bacterium, forming a “protective coating” on the outside of the cell and blocking a second ICE from entering.

But the biologists still didn’t know which piece of transfer machinery YddJ was blocking, so Davis performed a screen and various genetic manipulations to pinpoint YddJ’s target. YddJ, it turned out, was obstructing another protein called ConG, which likely forms part of the transfer channel between the donor and recipient bacteria. Davis was surprised to find that, while Gram-negative ICEs encode a protein that’s quite similar to ConG, the Gram-negative YddJ equivalent is actually much different.

“This just goes to show that you can’t assume the transfer machinery in Gram-positive ICEs like ICEBs1 are the same as the well-studied Gram-negative ICEs,” she says.

The team concluded that ICEBs1 must have three different mechanisms to prevent duplicate transfer: the two they’d previously uncovered plus this new one, exclusion.

Cell-cell signaling allows a cell to spread the word to its neighbors that it already has a copy of ICEBs1, so there’s no need to bother assembling the transfer machinery. If this fails, exclusion kicks in to physically block the transfer machinery from penetrating the recipient cell. If that proves unsuccessful and the second copy enters the recipient, immunity will initiate and prevent the second copy from being integrated into the recipient’s chromosome.

“Each mechanism acts at a different step, because none of them alone are 100 percent effective,” Grossman says. “That’s why it’s helpful to have multiple mechanisms.”

They don’t know all the details of this transfer machinery just yet, he adds, but they do know that YddJ and ConG are key players.

“This initial description of the ICEBs1 exclusion system represents the first report that provides mechanistic insights into exclusion in Gram-positive bacteria, and one of only a few mechanistic studies of exclusion in any conjugation system,” says Gary Dunny, a professor of microbiology and immunology at the University of Minnesota who was not involved in the study. “This work is significant medically because ICEs can carry “cargo” genes such as those conferring antibiotic resistance, and also of importance to our basic understanding of horizontal gene transfer systems and how they evolve.”

As researchers continue to probe this blocking mechanism, it might be possible to leverage ICE exclusion to design bacteria with specific functions. For instance, they could engineer the gut microbiome and introduce beneficial genes to help with digestion. Or, one day, they could perhaps block horizontal gene transfer to combat antibiotic resistance.

“We had suspected that Gram-positive ICEs might be capable of exclusion, but we didn’t have proof before this,” Avello says. Now, researchers can start to speculate about how pathogenic Gram-positive species might control the movement of ICEs throughout a bacterial population, with possible ramifications for disease research.

This work was funded by research and predoctoral training grants from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health.