Desmond Edwards ’22 awarded 2023 Paul and Daisy Soros Fellowship for New Americans

Fellowship funds graduate studies for outstanding immigrants and children of immigrants.

Julia Mongo | Office of Distinguished Fellowships | MIT Career Advising and Professional Development
April 25, 2023

MIT graduate students Kat Kajderowicz and Shomik Verma, alumni Desmond Edwards ’22 and Steven Truong ’20, and Vaibhav Mohanty, an MD-PhD student in the Harvard-MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology, are among the 30 recipients of this year’s Paul and Daisy Soros Fellowships for New Americans.

The P.D. Soros Fellowships for New Americans program honors the contributions of immigrants and children of immigrants to the United States. The program recognizes the potential of immigrants to make significant contributions to U.S. society, culture, and academia by providing $90,000 in graduate school financial support over two years.

Students interested in applying to the P.D. Soros Fellowship may contact Kim Benard, associate dean of distinguished fellowships in Career Advising and Professional Development.

Desmond Edwards ’22

Desmond Edwards graduated from MIT in 2022 with a double major in biological engineering and biology and a minor in French. As a National Science Foundation GRFP Fellow and Jamaica’s first Knight-Hennessy Scholar, Edwards is currently a PhD student in microbiology and immunology at Stanford University’s School of Medicine, where he researches immunity to infectious diseases. He intends to lead a scientific career not only contributing to groundbreaking academic research, but also ensuring that the fruits of this research have their maximal benefit to society through public policy, outreach, and education.

Born and raised in Jamaica, Edwards lived in rural St. Mary and attended school in urban Kingston. His constant childhood illnesses prompted his interest in better understanding human disease and his desire to develop novel therapeutic options for their treatment and prevention. At MIT, Edwards conducted host-pathogen research in Professor Rebecca Lamason’s lab, focusing on characterizing mutants of interest and developing novel genetic tools for use in the tick-borne pathogen Rickettsia parkeri. As an Amgen Scholar, he also worked with Professor Viviana Gradinaru at Caltech to engineer solutions for a novel gene therapy for Rett syndrome, a neurodevelopmental disorder primarily seen in girls.

Interested not only in the technical details of scientific research but also in its societal impact, Edwards has dedicated himself to serving the community through roles in the MIT Biotech Group, student representation and advocacy, and teaching and mentorship. For his academic achievements and commitments to community and nation-building, he was awarded a 2022 Prime Minister’s National Youth Award for Excellence, the highest national award bestowed on Jamaicans between the ages of 15 and 29 by the Prime Minister of Jamaica.

Kathrin (Kat) Kajderowicz

Kat Kajderowicz is a neuroscience PhD student in the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at MIT. She is co-advised by professors Sinisa Hrvatin and Jonathan Weissman at the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research and is researching how cells from hibernating organisms can survive cold temperatures to engineer human cells to do the same. Kajderowicz envisions her work improving organ transplantation and therapeutic hypothermia technologies. She hopes to someday lead a research group developing technologies that allow humans to safely enter and exit “hibernation-like” stasis for medical treatment purposes.

Kajderowicz grew up in Chicago’s large Polish-immigrant community. Her parents fled communist Poland in the early 1980s, arriving in the United States with no savings, college degrees, or knowledge of English. Kajderowicz’s mother worked as a housekeeper, while her father worked in construction. As undocumented immigrants fighting to obtain green cards, they spent most of their savings on the American naturalization process and rarely sought medical care because they couldn’t afford insurance and feared deportation. To help financially, Kajderowicz began working as a golf caddie at age 14. Her golf clients connected her with shadowing and interning opportunities at technology and biotechnology companies and hospitals, which inspired her career interests.

As an undergraduate at Cornell University, Kajderowicz worked at the Lab of Ornithology, where she built computational pipelines to better understand songbird communication. During undergraduate summers at Harvard University, she worked on comparative genomics and population genetics projects using plants, fruit flies, and butterflies. As a post-baccalaureate researcher at Harvard Medical School, she built imaging tools to visualize the development of different types of mouse retinal neurons.

In 2020, Kajderowicz’s father passed away from metastatic lung cancer. Kajderowicz served as his caregiver and medical proxy. Her greatest source of comfort was her hospital waiting room community. Inspired by the power of communities, Kajderowicz founded DNA Deviants, a 2,000-plus member biotechnology group that hosts podcasts on Twitch to discuss breakthrough research and organizes career mentorship programs.

Vaibhav Mohanty

Vaibhav Mohanty is pursuing an MD-PhD in the Harvard-MIT Program in Health Sciences and Technology, where he is earning a second PhD (in chemistry). His goal is to extend his physics-based theories of evolution to understand how molecular-level structural changes in proteins can induce changes in evolutionary fitness of viruses and cancers. Mohanty aspires to develop novel therapeutic approaches to combat diseases subject to evolution on fast timescales, and to treat patients with such diseases.

Mohanty was born in Durham, North Carolina, and grew up in Charleston, South Carolina. His parents emigrated from Odisha, India, to the United States to pursue academic research careers in biology. Accepted to Harvard College at age 15, Mohanty graduated in 2019 with a master’s degree in chemistry (theory) and a bachelor’s degree summa cum laude in chemistry and physics and a minor in music. He was inducted into the Phi Beta Kappa academic honor society and received a 2018 Barry Goldwater Scholarship for his physics research. As an undergraduate and master’s student, Mohanty’s published research papers spanned a number of interdisciplinary topics across the sciences and even music, including diffusion MRI physics, time-dependent quantum mechanics of graphene, and mathematical and geometrical models of voice leading in music theory. In 2022, Mohanty earned a PhD in theoretical physics as a Marshall Scholar at the University of Oxford’s Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, where he worked in the Condensed Matter Theory Group to use statistical physics and spin glass theory to investigate fundamental properties of biological evolution.

In addition to being a scientific researcher, Mohanty is an award-winning classical and jazz music composer, arranger, pianist, and saxophonist. His large wind ensemble and chamber works are distributed and performed regularly around the United States and in many parts of the world. He actively performs as a jazz pianist.

Steven Truong ’20

Steven Truong graduated from MIT in 2020 with a double major in biological engineering and writing. He was inducted into Phi Beta Kappa and Tau Beta Pi and was also named a Barry Goldwater Scholar. As a Marshall Scholar in the United Kingdom, Truong completed an MPhil in computational biology at Cambridge University and an MA in creative writing at Royal Holloway, University of London. Currently, he is an MD-PhD student at Stanford University. In his future career, Truong aspires to help solve and treat metabolic disorders such as diabetes. He hopes to make these discoveries accessible — especially for communities traditionally underrepresented and underserved in medicine — as a physician-scientist, science communicator, and storyteller.

Truong was born in St. Paul, Minnesota, to Vietnamese refugees. His parents and relatives pooled their resources to start a family-owned nail salon. Truong spent his evenings after school at the salon, where he assisted in the business’s operations and finished homework between helping customers. In his free time, he avidly read science fiction and fantasy, which evolved into a passion for science. Truong eventually realized he could use science to address diabetes, a disease that affects much of his family and community.

During his undergraduate years at MIT, Truong worked in the Langer-Anderson Lab to develop smart insulins, and in the Lauffenburger Lab to study the link between the immune system and diabetes. With funding from MIT’s Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program, he started a study investigating the genetic basis of diabetes with colleagues at the University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City. The data from this study were published, associating single nucleotide polymorphisms to Type 2 diabetes in Vietnamese individuals. Truong and his colleagues eventually secured a grant to expand their studies through the National Foundation for Science Technology and Development. The grant currently funds Vietnam’s largest genome-wide association study, which he co-leads.

Shomik Verma

Shomik Verma is pursuing a PhD in mechanical engineering at MIT with Professor Asegun Henry, where he is working on energy storage to make variable renewable energy sources such as solar more reliable, and on a next-generation power plant based on thermophotovoltaic power conversion. After his PhD, Verma hopes to use his skill set to decarbonize industry and make cheap, clean, and reliable energy available to all.

Growing up in Sugar Land, Texas, Verma maintained a deep connection to Indian culture. There was a strong emphasis on education, and he spent many weekends at math competitions with fellow Asian Americans. Verma started noticing some interesting patterns at the math competitions he attended — oil and gas companies would often sponsor them, and the conversations his petroleum engineer father had with his friends often turned to the geopolitics of energy. Verma was struck by the realization that he lived in the oil and gas capital of the world, with parents who were from the coal capital of India. He was caught between two worlds — the fossil fuel industry that enabled his way of life, and the growing threat of global warming he learned about in school.

When Verma lost his uncle to black lung, he decided it was time to devote his life to clean energy. While studying mechanical engineering at Duke University, he helped lead the Duke Electric Vehicles team to two Guinness world records for fuel efficiency, for both battery electric and fuel cell vehicles. In the U.K., as a Marshall Scholar, he completed an MPhil in materials science and conducted research at Imperial College London and the University of Cambridge, working on improving the efficiency of solar cells.

Yamashita elected to American Academy of Arts and Sciences for 2023

The prestigious honor society announces more than 250 new members, including MIT Biology Professor Yukiko Yamashita.

MIT News Office
April 24, 2023

Eight MIT faculty members are among more than 250 leaders from academia, the arts, industry, public policy, and research elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the academy announced April 19.

One of the nation’s most prestigious honorary societies, the academy is also a leading center for independent policy research. Members contribute to academy publications, as well as studies of science and technology policy, energy and global security, social policy and American institutions, the humanities and culture, and education.

Those elected from MIT in 2023 are:

  • Arnaud Costinot, professor of economics;
  • James J. DiCarlo, the Peter de Florez Professor of Brain and Cognitive Sciences and director of the MIT Quest for Intelligence;
  • Piotr Indyk, the Thomas D. and Virginia W. Cabot Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science;
  • Senthil Todadri, professor of physics;
  • Evelyn N. Wang, the Ford Professor of Engineering (on leave) and director of the Department of Energy’s Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy;
  • Boleslaw Wyslouch, professor of physics and director of the Laboratory for Nuclear Science and Bates Research and Engineering Center;
  • Yukiko Yamashita, professor of biology and core member of the Whitehead Institute; and
  • Wei Zhang, professor of mathematics.

“With the election of these members, the academy is honoring excellence, innovation, and leadership and recognizing a broad array of stellar accomplishments. We hope every new member celebrates this achievement and joins our work advancing the common good,” says David W. Oxtoby, president of the academy.

Since its founding in 1780, the academy has elected leading thinkers from each generation, including George Washington and Benjamin Franklin in the 18th century, Maria Mitchell and Daniel Webster in the 19th century, and Toni Morrison and Albert Einstein in the 20th century. The current membership includes more than 250 Nobel and Pulitzer Prize winners.

A novel combination therapy for treating vancomycin-resistant bacterial infections

Developed at SMART, the therapy stimulates the host immune system to more effectively clear bacterial infections and accelerate infected wound healing.

Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology
March 24, 2023

Researchers have developed a novel combination therapy using the anticancer agent mitoxantrone (MTX), together with an antibiotic, vancomycin, for treating bacteria that are resistant to the vancomycin, which are also known as vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis or VRE. The therapy uniquely targets both VRE and the host, stimulating the host immune system to more effectively clear bacterial infections and accelerate infected wound healing. The work was led by scientists at the Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) interdisciplinary research group at Singapore-MIT Alliance for Research and Technology (SMART), MIT’s research enterprise in Singapore, in collaboration with Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, MIT, and University of Geneva.

Antimicrobial resistance is a significant global health concern, causing 4.95 million deaths from infections associated with or attributed to antimicrobial resistance in 2019 alone. By 2050, the Asia-Pacific region is forecast to account for 47 percent of AMR-related deaths worldwide if immediate and coordinated actions are not taken to avert a potential drug-resistance crisis. In response to this aggravating health threat, new and innovative approaches to treating bacterial infections are being developed, including the use of antimicrobials that can overcome resistance mechanisms and host-directed therapies that enhance the innate human immune system to combat bacterial infections.

VRE is a “hard-to-kill” bacterium due to its increasing antibiotic resistance. It can cause serious infections, including urinary tract, bloodstream, and wound infections associated with catheters or surgical procedures. The treatment of VRE infections has posed a significant challenge as the bacteria exhibit resistance to vancomycin — an antibiotic commonly used to treat endocarditis, skin, stomach, and intestine infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria — and other commonly used antibiotics.

In this research, the team tested MTX’s effectiveness and antibiotic activity against VRE, both in vitro and in vivo. Despite VRE’s resistance to vancomycin, MTX was found to inhibit the growth of VRE more effectively when used in the presence of vancomycin. This outcome is due to the synergistic relationship between MTX and vancomycin, which makes VRE more sensitive to vancomycin by lowering the vancomycin concentration required to kill VRE. The research also demonstrated that MTX improved wound healing by enhancing the ability of macrophages — a type of white blood cell that kills microorganisms, removes dead cells, and stimulates the action of other immune cells — to fight off VRE infections, and by recruiting more immune cells to the site of infection.

MIT co-authors on a paper about the work include professor of biology Jianzhu Chen and visiting professor Guangan Hu, both of whom are affiliated with the Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research.

SMART was established by MIT in partnership with the National Research Foundation of Singapore (NRF) in 2007. SMART is the first entity in the Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE) developed by NRF. SMART serves as an intellectual and innovation hub for cutting-edge research interactions between MIT and Singapore. SMART currently comprises an Innovation Centre and five interdisciplinary research groups: AMR, Critical Analytics for Manufacturing Personalized-Medicine, Disruptive and Sustainable Technologies for Agricultural Precision, Future Urban Mobility, and Low Energy Electronic Systems.

The AMR interdisciplinary research group is a translational research and entrepreneurship program that tackles the growing threat of antimicrobial resistance. By leveraging talent and convergent technologies across Singapore and MIT, we aim to tackle AMR head-on by developing multiple innovative and disruptive approaches to identify, respond to, and treat drug-resistant microbial infections. Through strong scientific and clinical collaborations, our goal is to provide transformative, holistic solutions for Singapore and the world.

Coding for health equity

Senior Mercy Oladipo is building tools to address disparities in health care.

Laura Rosado | MIT News correspondent
March 24, 2023

Choosing a major was a long process for Mercy Oladipo. Coming into MIT, she was interested in both computer science and medicine, but a plan for how those passions would intersect took some time to coalesce.

Oladipo finally settled on a joint major in computer science and molecular biology, which allowed her to dive into computer science and also fulfill her pre-med class requirements.

At face value, the classes in her two majors “are very far-removed,” says Oladipo. “You don’t really touch any interaction until your junior or senior year, but it helped me feel like I could do whatever I want and chart my own path.”

Now a senior, Oladipo has pursued a range of opportunities that allow her to apply her coding skills to build tools for health care, with support from MIT’s PKG Center. These include exploring health disparities in end-of-life care with the Clinical Decision-Making Group in MIT’s Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, revamping the webpage for the Boston Medical Center’s Autism Friendly Initiative, and creating websites for studies run by Tufts University’s Maternal Outcomes for Translational Health Equity Research (M.O.T.H.E.R.) Lab.

For Oladipo, the through-line among her interests has always been equity, whether in health care or in education.

An app for Black mothers

Everything came together when Oladipo participated as a sophomore in Womxn Ignite, a tech incubator for women interested in public interest technology. It was there that she first had the idea for Birth By Us, a startup she co-founded with Ijeoma Uche, a second-year master’s student at the University of California at Berkeley.

Birth By Us is a pregnancy and postpartum app built by and for Black women. The goal is to be a centralized source of information throughout the entire birth experience, from prenatal appointments to postpartum recovery. Every day, users fill out a questionnaire to screen for symptoms that are often overlooked, and will be provided with resources tailored to their personal experience. With Birth By Us, Oladipo hopes to address the racial disparity in maternal deaths while also forging stronger connections between community programs and Black mothers.

Now a senior, Oladipo still sees many paths ahead of her following graduation. Over the next few years, she plans to keep working on and scaling Birth By Us. She’d also like to attend medical school and pursue maternal health research in other contexts.

“Everything is very intertwined,” Oladipo says when asked about what comes next. “It’s all the same topic in different fonts.”

Oladipo also says she isn’t stressed about the uncertainty in her future. She credits that comfort to the support she receives from her family and her faith. Oladipo is grateful for her family’s presence in her life, whether that’s in the form of advice from her parents and two older siblings or daily calls from her younger brother.

A lifelong love of language learning

This year, Oladipo spent Independent Activities Period in Aguascalientes, Mexico, teaching middle schoolers through the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives’ Global Teaching Labs program. Along with two other MIT students, they tackled coding and building lava lamps, and ended the program by building a Rube Goldberg machine in collaboration with Panamerican University.

To apply for the program, Oladipo needed to be able to speak Spanish, a requirement she easily cleared from studying the language since high school. There were two reasons why she had picked it up. The first was that most of her friends also spoke Spanish and she wanted to be able to converse with them in their native language.

“My best friend in seventh grade didn’t have a phone, so we’d always email back and forth in the mornings,” says Oladipo. “I would try to practice my Spanish with him. I look back and the grammar is not there, the spelling is all off, but it was cute.”

The second reason was that she had studied Latin since second grade and found herself wondering what came next after completing AP Latin.

“Everyone used to tell me it’s a dead language, but I thought it was so cool,” says Oladipo. She adds that she was “such a nerd back then” for enjoying the nuances of the language, such as the rigid grammatical structure and how English derivatives came to be.

Oladipo didn’t plan on taking Portuguese in college — she had originally intended on adding Yoruba to her arsenal but couldn’t work it into her schedule — but decided to take it when it fit her schedule. Now, she’s eyeing a potential Fulbright in São Paolo and has plans to see more of Latin America following graduation.

For now, Oladipo is focusing on finishing up her college career. In between managing her company and balancing her classwork, she’s also a member of the cheerleading team. And, she’s currently the president of the Xi Tau Chapter of the Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc. where she helps plan public service events and other programs throughout the year.

There’s a lot on her plate, and Oladipo acknowledges that. But she’s also looking forward to what comes after graduation.

“I’m a bit of a workaholic, but I’m excited to be more done and focus on what I actually want to put my time toward,” she says.

QS World University Rankings rates MIT No. 1 in 11 subjects for 2023

The Institute also ranks second in five subject areas.

MIT News Office
March 22, 2023

QS World University Rankings has placed MIT in the No. 1 spot in 11 subject areas for 2023, the organization announced today.

The Institute received a No. 1 ranking in the following QS subject areas: Chemical Engineering; Civil and Structural Engineering; Computer Science and Information Systems; Data Science and Artificial Intelligence; Electrical and Electronic Engineering; Linguistics; Materials Science; Mechanical, Aeronautical, and Manufacturing Engineering; Mathematics; Physics and Astronomy; and Statistics and Operational Research.

MIT also placed second in five subject areas: Accounting and Finance; Architecture/Built Environment; Biological Sciences; Chemistry; and Economics and Econometrics.

For 2023, universities were evaluated in 54 specific subjects and five broader subject areas. MIT was ranked No. 1 in the broader subject area of Engineering and Technology and No. 2 in Natural Sciences.

Quacquarelli Symonds Limited subject rankings, published annually, are designed to help prospective students find the leading schools in their field of interest. Rankings are based on research quality and accomplishments, academic reputation, and graduate employment.

MIT has been ranked as the No. 1 university in the world by QS World University Rankings for 11 straight years.

2023 MacVicar Faculty Fellows named

Professors Gabrieli, Gubar, Martin, and Sass are honored for exceptional undergraduate teaching.

Meghan Burke | Office of the Registrar
March 10, 2023

The Office of the Vice Chancellor and the Registrar’s Office have announced this year’s Margaret MacVicar Faculty Fellows: professor of brain and cognitive sciences John Gabrieli, associate professor of literature Marah Gubar, professor of biology Adam C. Martin, and associate professor of architecture Lawrence “Larry” Sass.

For more than 30 years, the MacVicar Faculty Fellows Program has recognized exemplary and sustained contributions to undergraduate education at MIT. The program is named in honor of Margaret MacVicar, the first dean for undergraduate education and founder of the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP). New fellows are chosen every year through a competitive nomination process that includes submission of letters of support from colleagues, students, and alumni; review by an advisory committee led by the vice chancellor; and a final selection by the provost. Fellows are appointed to a 10-year term and receive $10,000 per year of discretionary funds.

Gabrieli, Gubar, Martin, and Sass join an elite group of more than 130 scholars from across the Institute who are committed to curricular innovation, excellence in teaching, and supporting students both in and out of the classroom.

John Gabrieli

“When I learned of this wonderful honor, I felt gratitude — for how MIT values teaching and learning, how my faculty colleagues bring such passion to their teaching, and how the students have such great curiosity for learning,” says new MacVicar Fellow John Gabrieli.

Gabrieli PhD ’87 received a bachelor’s degree in English from Yale University and his PhD in behavioral neuroscience from MIT. He is the Grover M. Hermann Professor in the Department of Brain and Cognitive sciences. Gabrieli is also an investigator in the McGovern Institute for Brain Research and the founding director of the MIT Integrated Learning Initiative (MITili). He holds appointments in the Department of Psychiatry at Massachusetts General Hospital and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, and studies the organization of memory, thought, and emotion in the human brain.

He joined Course 9 as a professor in 2005 and since then, he has taught over 3,000 undergraduates through the department’s introductory course, 9.00 (Introduction to Psychological Science). Gabrieli was recognized with departmental awards for excellence in teaching in 2009, 2012, and 2015. Highly sought after by undergraduate researchers, the Gabrieli Laboratory (GabLab) hosts five to 10 UROPs each year.

A unique element of Gabrieli’s classes is his passionate, hands-on teaching style and his use of interactive demonstrations, such as optical illusions and personality tests, to help students grasp some of the most fundamental topics in psychology.

His former teaching assistant Daniel Montgomery ’22 writes, “I was impressed by his enthusiasm and ability to keep students engaged throughout the lectures … John clearly has a desire to help students become excited about the material he’s teaching.”

Senior Elizabeth Carbonell agrees: “The excitement professor Gabrieli brought to lectures by starting with music every time made the classroom an enjoyable atmosphere conducive to learning … he always found a way to make every lecture relatable to the students, teaching psychological concepts that would shine a light on our own human emotions.”

Lecturer and 9.00 course coordinator Laura Frawley says, “John constantly innovates … He uses research-based learning techniques in his class, including blended learning, active learning, and retrieval practice.” His findings on blended learning resulted in two MITx offerings including 9.00x (Learning and Memory), which utilizes a nontraditional approach to assignments and exams to improve how students retrieve and remember information.

In addition, he is known for being a devoted teacher who believes in caring for the student as a whole. Through MITili’s Mental Wellness Initiative, Gabrieli, along with a compassionate team of faculty and staff, are working to better understand how mental health conditions impact learning.

Associate department head and associate professor of brain and cognitive sciences Josh McDermott calls him “an exceptional educator who has left his mark on generations of MIT undergraduate students with his captivating, innovative, and thoughtful approach to teaching.”

Mariana Gomez de Campo ’20 concurs: “There are certain professors that make their mark on students’ lives; professor Gabrieli permanently altered the course of mine.”

Laura Schulz, MacVicar Fellow and associate department head of brain and cognitive sciences, remarks, “His approach is visionary … John’s manner with students is unfailingly gracious … he hastens to remind them that they are as good as it gets, the smartest and brightest of their generation … it is the kind of warm, welcoming, inclusive approach to teaching that subtly but effectively reminds students that they belong here at MIT … It is little wonder that they love him.”

Marah Gubar

Marah Gubar joined MIT as an associate professor of literature in 2014. She received her BA in English literature from the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor and a PhD from Princeton University. Gubar taught in the English department at the University of Pittsburgh and served as director of the Children’s Literature Program. She received MIT’s James A. and Ruth Levitan Teaching Award in 2019 and the Teaching with Digital Technology Award in 2020.

Gubar’s research focuses on children’s literature, history of children’s theater, performance, and 19th- and 20th-century representations of childhood. Her research and pedagogies underscore the importance of integrated learning.

Colleagues at MIT note her efficacy in introducing new concepts and new subjects into the literature curriculum during her tenure as curricular chair. Gubar set the stage for wide-ranging curricular improvements, resulting in a host of literature subjects on interrelated topics within and across disciplines.

Gubar teaches several classes, including 21L.452 (Literature and Philosophy) and 21L.500 (How We Got to Hamilton). Her lectures provide uniquely enriching learning experiences in which her students are encouraged to dive into literary texts; craft thoughtful, persuasive arguments; and engage in lively intellectual debate.

Gubar encourages others to bring fresh ideas and think outside the box. For example, her seminar on “Hamilton” challenges students to recontextualize the hip-hop musical in several intellectual traditions. Professor Eric Klopfer, head of the Comparative Media Studies Program/Writing and interim head of literature, calls Gubar “a thoughtful, caring instructor, and course designer … She thinks critically about whose story is being told and by whom.”

MacVicar Fellow and professor of literature Stephen Tapscott praises her experimentation, abstract thinking, and storytelling: “Professor Gubar’s ability to frame intellectual questions in terms of problems, developments, and performance is an important dimension of the genius of her teaching.”

“Marah is hands-down the most enthusiastic, effective, and engaged professor I had the pleasure of learning from at MIT,” writes one student. “She’s one of the few instructors I’ve had who never feels the need to reassert her place in the didactic hierarchy, but approaches her students as intellectual equals.”

Tapscott continues, “She welcomes participation in ways that enrich the conversation, open new modes of communication, and empower students as autonomous literary critics. In professor Gubar’s classroom we learn by doing … and that progress also includes ‘doing’ textual analysis, cultural history, and abstract literary theory.”

Gubar is also a committed mentor and student testimonials highlight her supportive approach. One of her former students remarked that Gubar “has a strong drive to be inclusive, and truly cares about ‘getting it right’ … her passion for literature and teaching, together with her drive for inclusivity, her ability to take accountability, and her compassion and empathy for her students, make [her] a truly remarkable teacher.”

On receiving this award Marah Gubar writes, “The best word I can think of to describe how I reacted to hearing that I had received this very overwhelming honor is ‘plotzing.’ The Yiddish verb ‘to plotz’ literally means to crack, burst, or collapse, so that captures how undone I was. I started to cry, because it suddenly struck me how much joy my father, Edward Gubar, would have taken in this amazing news. He was a teacher, too, and he died during the first phase of this terrible pandemic that we’re still struggling to get through.”

Adam C. Martin

Adam C. Martin is a professor and undergraduate officer in the Department of Biology. He studies the molecular mechanisms that underlie tissue form and function. His research interests include gastrulation, embryotic development, cytoskeletal dynamics, and the coordination of cellular behavior. Martin received his PhD from the University of California at Berkeley and his BS in biology (genetics) from Cornell University. Martin joined the Course 7 faculty in 2011.

“I am overwhelmed with gratitude knowing that this has come from our students. The fact that they spent time to contribute to a nomination is incredibly meaningful to me,” says Martin. “I want to also thank all of my faculty colleagues with whom I have taught, appreciate, and learned immensely from over the past 12 years. I am a better teacher because of them and inspired by their dedication.”

He is committed to undergraduate education, teaching several key department offerings including 7.06 (Cell Biology), 7.016 (Introductory Biology), 7.002 (Fundamentals of Experimental Molecular Biology), and 7.102 (Introduction to Molecular Biology Techniques).

Martin’s style combines academic and scientific expertise with creative elements like props and demonstrations. His “energy and passion for the material” is obvious, writes Iain Cheeseman, associate department head and the Herman and Margaret Sokol Professor of Biology. “In addition to creating engaging lectures, Adam went beyond the standard classroom requirements to develop videos and animations (in collaboration with the Biology MITx team) to illustrate core cell biological approaches and concepts.”

What sets Martin apart is his connection with students, his positive spirit, and his welcoming demeanor. Apolonia Gardner ’22 reflects on the way he helped her outside of class through his running group, which connects younger students with seniors in his lab. “Professor Martin was literally committed to ‘going the extra mile’ by inviting his students to join him on runs around the Charles River on Friday afternoons,” she says.

Amy Keating, department head and Jay A. Stein professor of biology, and professor of biological engineering, goes on to praise Martin’s ability to attract students to Course 7 and guide them through their educational experience in his role as the director of undergraduate studies. “He hosts social events, presides at our undergraduate research symposium and the department’s undergraduate graduation and awards banquet, and works with the Biology Undergraduate Student Association,” she says.

As undergraduate officer, Martin is involved in both advising and curriculum building. He mentors UROP students, serves as a first-year advisor, and is a current member of MIT’s Committee on the Undergraduate Program (CUP).

Martin also brings a commitment to diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) as evidenced by his creation of a DEI journal club in his lab so that students have a dedicated space to discuss issues and challenges. Course 7 DEI officer Hallie Dowling-Huppert writes that Martin “thinks deeply about how DEI efforts are created to ensure that department members receive the maximum benefit. Adam considers all perspectives when making decisions, and is extremely empathetic and caring towards his students.”

“He makes our world so much better,” Keating observes. “Adam is a gem.”

Lawrence “Larry” Sass

Larry Sass SM ’94, PhD ’00 is an associate professor in the Department of Architecture. He earned his PhD and SM in architecture at MIT, and has a BArch from Pratt Institute in New York City. Sass joined the faculty in the Department of Architecture in 2002. His work focuses on the delivery of affordable housing for low-income families. He was included in an exhibit titled “Home Delivery: Fabricating the Modern Dwelling” at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.

Sass’s teaching blends computation with design. His two signature courses, 4.500 (Design Computation: Art, Objects and Space) and 4.501 (Tiny Fab: Advancements in Rapid Design and Fabrication of Small Homes), reflect his specialization in digitally fabricating buildings and furniture from machines.

Professor and head of architecture Nicholas de Monchaux writes, “his classes provide crucial instruction and practice with 3D modeling and computer-generated rendering and animation …  [He] links digital design to fabrication, in a process that invites students to define desirable design attributes of an object, develop a digital model, prototype it, and construct it at full scale.”

More generally, Sass’ approach is to help students build confidence in their own design process through hands-on projects. MIT Class of 1942 Professor John Ochsendorf, MacVicar Fellow, and founding director of the Morningside Academy for Design with appointments in the departments of architecture and civil and environmental engineering, confirms, “Larry’s teaching is a perfect embodiment of the ‘mens et manus’ spirit … [he] requires his students to go back and forth from mind and hand throughout each design project.”

Students say that his classes are a journey of self-discovery, allowing them to learn more about themselves and their own abilities. Senior Natasha Hirt notes, “What I learned from Larry was not something one can glean from a textbook, but a new way of seeing space … he tectonically shifted my perspective on buildings. He also shifted my perspective on myself. I’m a better designer for his teachings, and perhaps more importantly, I better understand how I design.”

Senior Izzi Waitz echoes this sentiment: “Larry emphasizes the importance of intentionally thinking through your designs and being confident in your choices … he challenges, questions, and prompts you so that you learn to defend and support yourself on your own.”

As a UROP coordinator, Sass assures students that the “sky is the limit” and all ideas are welcome. Postgraduate teaching fellow and research associate Myles Sampson says, “During the last year of my SM program, I assisted Larry in conducting a year-long UROP project … He structured the learning experience in a way that allowed the students to freely flex their design muscles: no idea was too outrageous.”

Sass is equally devoted to his students outside the classroom. In his role as head of house at MacGregor House, he lives in community with more than 300 undergraduates each year, providing academic guidance, creating residential programs and recreational activities, and ensuring that student wellness and mental health is a No. 1 priority.

Professor of architecture and MacVicar Fellow Les Norford says, “In two significant ways, Larry has been ahead of his time: combining digital representation and design with making and being alert to the well-being of his students.”

“In his kindness, he honors the memory of Margaret MacVicar, as well as the spirit of MIT itself,” Hirt concludes. “He is a designer, a craftsman, and an innovator. He is an inspiration and a compass.”

On receiving this award, Sass is full of excitement: “I love teaching and being part of the MIT community. I am grateful for the opportunity to be part of the MacVicar family of fellows.”

School of Science presents 2023 Infinite Expansion Awards

Seven postdocs and research scientists honored for contributions to the Institute.

Sarah Costello | School of Science
February 24, 2023

The MIT School of Science has announced seven postdocs and research scientists as recipients of the 2023 Infinite Expansion Award. Nominated by their peers and mentors, the awardees are recognized not only for their exceptional science, but for mentoring and advising junior colleagues, supporting educational programs, working with the MIT Postdoctoral Association, or contributing some other way to the Institute.

The 2023 Infinite Expansion award winners in the School of Science are:

  • Kyle Jenks, a postdoc in the Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, nominated by professor and Picower Institute investigator Mriganka Sur;
  • Matheus Victor, a postdoc in the Picower Institute, nominated by professor and Picower Institute director Li-Huei Tsai.

A monetary award is granted to recipients, and a celebratory reception will be held for the winners this spring with family, friends, nominators, and recipients of the Infinite Expansion Award.

Why lung cancer doesn’t respond well to immunotherapy

A new study reveals that lymph nodes near the lungs create an environment that weakens T-cell responses to tumors.

Anne Trafton | MIT News Office
February 2, 2023

Immunotherapy — drug treatment that stimulates the immune system to attack tumors — works well against some types of cancer, but it has shown mixed success against lung cancer.

A new study from MIT helps to shed light on why the immune system mounts such a lackluster response to lung cancer, even after treatment with immunotherapy drugs. In a study of mice, the researchers found that bacteria naturally found in the lungs help to create an environment that suppresses T-cell activation in the lymph nodes near the lungs.

The researchers did not find that kind of immune-suppressive environment in lymph nodes near tumors growing near the skin of mice. They hope that their findings could help lead to the development of new ways to rev up the immune response to lung tumors.

“There is a functional difference between the T-cell responses that are mounted in the different lymph nodes. We’re hoping to identify a way to counteract that suppressive response, so that we can reactivate the lung-tumor-targeting T cells,” says Stefani Spranger, the Howard S. and Linda B. Stern Career Development Assistant Professor of Biology, a member of MIT’s Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, and the senior author of the new study.

MIT graduate student Maria Zagorulya is the lead author of the paper, which appears today in the journal Immunity.

Failure to attack

For many years, scientists have known that cancer cells can send out immunosuppressive signals, which leads to a phenomenon known as T-cell exhaustion. The goal of cancer immunotherapy is to rejuvenate those T cells so they can begin attacking tumors again.

One type of drug commonly used for immunotherapy involves checkpoint inhibitors, which remove the brakes on exhausted T cells and help reactivate them. This approach has worked well with cancers such as melanoma, but not as well with lung cancer.

Spranger’s recent work has offered one possible explanation for this: She found that some T cells stop working even before they reach a tumor, because of a failure to become activated early in their development. In a 2021 paper, she identified populations of dysfunctional T cells that can be distinguished from normal T cells by a pattern of gene expression that prevents them from attacking cancer cells when they enter a tumor.

“Despite the fact that these T cells are proliferating, and they’re infiltrating the tumor, they were never licensed to kill,” Spranger says.

In the new study, her team delved further into this activation failure, which occurs in the lymph nodes, which filter fluids that drain from nearby tissues. The lymph nodes are where “killer T cells” encounter dendritic cells, which present antigens (tumor proteins) and help to activate the T cells.

To explore why some killer T cells fail to be properly activated, Spranger’s team studied mice that had tumors implanted either in the lungs or in the flank. All of the tumors were genetically identical.

The researchers found that T cells in lymph nodes that drain from the lung tumors did encounter dendritic cells and recognize the tumor antigens displayed by those cells. However, these T cells failed to become fully activated, as a result of inhibition by another population of T cells called regulatory T cells.

These regulatory T cells became strongly activated in lymph nodes that drain from the lungs, but not in lymph nodes near tumors located in the flank, the researchers found. Regulatory T cells are normally responsible for making sure that the immune system doesn’t attack the body’s own cells. However, the researchers found that these T cells also interfere with dendritic cells’ ability to activate killer T cells that target lung tumors.

The researchers also discovered how these regulatory T cells suppress dendritic cells: by removing stimulatory proteins from the surface of dendritic cells, which prevents them from being able to turn on killer-T-cell activity.

Microbial influence

Further studies revealed that the activation of regulatory T cells is driven by high levels of interferon gamma in the lymph nodes that drain from the lungs. This signaling molecule is produced in response to the presence of commensal bacterial — bacteria that normally live in the lungs without causing infection.

The researchers have not yet identified the types of bacteria that induce this response or the cells that produce the interferon gamma, but they showed that when they treated mice with an antibody that blocks interferon gamma, they could restore killer T cells’ activity.

Interferon gamma has a variety of effects on immune signaling, and blocking it can dampen the overall immune response against a tumor, so using it to stimulate killer T cells would not be a good strategy to use in patients, Spranger says. Her lab is now exploring other ways to help stimulate the killer T cell response, such as inhibiting the regulatory T cells that suppress the killer-T-cell response or blocking the signals from the commensal bacteria, once the researchers identify them.

The research was funded by a Pew-Stewart Scholarship, the Koch Institute Frontier Research program, the Ludwig Center at the Koch Institute, and an MIT School of Science Fellowship in Cancer Research.

Sparse, small, but diverse neural connections help make perception reliable, efficient

First detailed mapping and modeling of thalamus inputs onto visual cortex neurons show brain leverages “wisdom of the crowd” to process sensory information.

David Orenstein | Picower Institute for Learning and Memory
February 2, 2023

The brain’s cerebral cortex produces perception based on the sensory information it’s fed through a region called the thalamus.

“How the thalamus communicates with the cortex in a fundamental feature of how the brain interprets the world,” says Elly Nedivi, the William R. and Linda R. Young Professor in The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory at MIT. Despite the importance of thalamic input to the cortex, neuroscientists have struggled to understand how it works so well given the relative paucity of observed connections, or “synapses,” between the two regions.

To help close this knowledge gap, Nedivi assembled a collaboration within and beyond MIT to apply several innovative methods. In a new study described in Nature Neuroscience, the team reports that thalamic inputs into superficial layers of the cortex are not only rare, but also surprisingly weak, and quite diverse in their distribution patterns. Despite this, they are reliable and efficient representatives of information in the aggregate, and their diversity is what underlies these advantages.

Essentially, by meticulously mapping every thalamic synapse on 15 neurons in layer 2/3 of the visual cortex in mice and then modeling how that input affected each neuron’s processing of visual information, the team found that wide variations in the number and arrangement of thalamic synapses made them differentially sensitive to visual stimulus features. While individual neurons therefore couldn’t reliably interpret all aspects of the stimulus, a small population of them could together reliably and efficiently assemble the overall picture.

“It seems this heterogeneity is not a bug; it’s a feature that provides not only a cost benefit, but also confers flexibility and robustness to perturbation” says Nedivi, corresponding author of the study and a member of MIT’s faculty in the departments of Biology and Brain and Cognitive Sciences.

Aygul Balcioglu, the research scientist in Nedivi’s lab who led the work, adds that the research has created a way for neuroscientists to track all the many individual inputs a cell receives as that input is happening.

“Thousands of information inputs pour into a single brain cell. The brain cell then interprets all that information before it communicates its own response to the next brain cell,” Balcioglu says. “What is new, and we feel exciting, is we can now reliably describe the identity and the characteristics of those inputs, as different inputs and characteristics convey different information to a given brain cell. Our techniques give us the ability to describe in living animals where in the structure of the single cell what kind of information gets incorporated. This was not possible until now.”

“MAP”ping and modeling

Nedivi and Balcioglu’s team chose layer 2/3 of the cortex because this layer is where there is relatively high flexibility, or “plasticity,” even in the adult brain. Yet, thalamic innervation there has rarely been characterized. Moreover, Nedivi says, even though the model organism for the study was mice, those layers are the ones that have thickened the most over the course of evolution, and therefore play especially important roles in the human cortex.

Precisely mapping all the thalamic innervation onto entire neurons in living, perceiving mice is so daunting it’s never been done.

To get started, the team used a technique established in Nedivi’s lab that enables observing whole cortical neurons under a two-photon microscope using three different color tags in the same cell simultaneously, except in this case they used one of the colors to label thalamic inputs contacting the labeled cortical neurons. Wherever the color of those thalamic inputs overlapped with the color labeling excitatory synapses on the cortical neurons, that revealed the location of putative thalamic inputs onto the cortical neurons.

Two-photon microscopes offer deep looks into living tissues, but their resolution is not sufficient to confirm that the overlapping labels are indeed synaptic contacts. To confirm their first indications of thalamic inputs, the team turned to a technique called MAP invented in the Picower Institute lab of MIT chemical engineering Associate Professor Kwanghun Chung. MAP physically enlarges tissue in the lab, effectively increasing the resolution of standard microscopes. Rebecca Gillani, a postdoc in the Nedivi lab, with help from Taeyun Ku, a Chung Lab postdoc, was able to combine the new labeling and MAP to definitely resolve, count, map, and even measure the size of all thalamic-cortical synapses onto entire neurons.

The analysis revealed that the thalamic inputs were rather small (typically presumed to also be weak and maybe temporary), and accounted for between 2 and 10 percent of the excitatory synapses on individual visual cortex neurons. The variance in thalamic synapse numbers was not just at a cellular level, but also across different “dendrite” branches of individual cells, accounting for anywhere between zero and nearly half the synapses on a given branch.

“Wisdom of the crowd”

These facts presented Nedivi’s team with a conundrum. If the thalamic inputs were weak, sparse, and widely varying, not only across neurons but even across each neuron’s dendrites, then how good could they be for reliable information transfer?

To help solve the riddle, Nedivi turned to colleague Idan Segev, a professor at Hebrew University in Jerusalem specializing in computational neuroscience. Segev and his student Michael Doron used the Nedivi lab’s detailed anatomical measurements and physiological information from the Allen Brain Atlas to create a biophysically faithful model of the cortical neurons.

Segev’s model showed that when the cells were fed visual information (the simulated signals of watching a grating go past the eyes) their electrical responses varied based on how their thalamic input varied. Some cells perked up more than others in response to different aspects of the visual information, such as contrast or shape, but no single cell revealed much about the overall picture. But with about 20 cells together, the whole visual input could be decoded from their combined activity — a so-called “wisdom of the crowd.”

Notably, Segev compared the performance of cells with the weak, sparse, and varying input akin to what Nedivi’s lab measured, to the performance of a group of cells that all acted like the best single cell of the lot. Up to about 5,000 total synapses, the “best” cell group delivered more informative results, but after that level the small, weak, and diverse group actually performed better. In the race to represent the total visual input with at least 90 percent accuracy, the small, weak, and diverse group reached that level with about 6,700 synapses, while the “best” cell group needed more than 7,900.

“Thus heterogeneity imparts a cost reduction in terms of the number of synapses required for accurate readout of visual features,” the authors wrote.

Nedivi says the study raises tantalizing implications regarding how thalamic input into the cortex works. One, she says, is that given the small size of thalamic synapses they are likely to exhibit significant “plasticity.” Another is that the surprising benefit of diversity may be a general feature, not just a special case for visual input in layer 2/ 3. Further studies, however, are needed to know for sure.

In addition to Nedivi, Balcioglu, Gillani, Ku, Chung, Segev and Doron, other authors are Kendyll Burnell and Alev Erisir.

The National Eye Institute of the National Institutes of Health, the Office of Naval Research, and the JPB Foundation funded the study.

Paying it forward

When she’s not analyzing data about her favorite biomolecule, senior Sherry Nyeo focuses on improving the undergraduate experience at MIT.

Phie Jacobs | School of Science
January 31, 2023

Since arriving at MIT in fall 2019, senior Sherry Nyeo has conducted groundbreaking work in multiple labs on campus, acted as a mentor to countless other students, and made a lasting mark on the Institute community. But despite her well-earned bragging rights, Nyeo isn’t one to boast. Instead, she takes every opportunity to express just how grateful she is to the professors, alumni, and fellow students who have helped and inspired her during her time at MIT. “I like helping people if I can,” says Nyeo, who is majoring in computer science and molecular biology, “because I got helped so much.”

Nyeo’s passion for science began when she applied for the Selective Science Program at Tainan First Senior High School, widely considered one of the most prestigious high schools in Taiwan. “Preparing for that process made me realize that biology was pretty cool,” she recalls.

When Nyeo was 16, her family moved from Taiwan to Colorado, where she continued to cultivate her interest in STEM. Although she excelled at biology, she initially struggled to master computer science. “[Programming] was really hard for me,” she says. “It was a completely different way of thinking.” When she arrived at MIT, she decided to pursue a degree in computer science precisely because she knew she would find it challenging and because she appreciates how vital data analysis is to the field of biology. After all, she says, when you’re working at the scale of cells and molecules, “you need a lot of data to describe what’s going on.”

In the winter of her first year at MIT, Nyeo began doing hands-on research in laboratories on campus through the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP). Her work in the lab of Whitehead Fellow Silvi Rouskin sparked an enduring interest in RNA, which she has come to regard as her “favorite biomolecule.”

Nyeo’s work in the Rouskin lab focused on alternative RNA structures and the roles they play in human and viral biology. While DNA mostly exists as a double helix, RNA can fold itself into a huge variety of structures in order to fulfill different functions. During her time as a student researcher, Nyeo has demonstrated a similar ability to adapt to different circumstances. When MIT campus members evacuated due to the Covid-19 pandemic in March 2020, and her UROP became entirely remote, she treated her time away from the lab as an opportunity to explore the computational side of research. Her work was subsequently included in a Nature Communications paper on the SARS-CoV-2 genome, on which she is listed as a co-author.

Since returning to campus, Nyeo has often worked in multiple labs simultaneously, conducting innovative research while also juggling classes, internships, and several demanding extracurriculars. Through it all, she has continued to pursue her fascination with RNA, a tiny, somewhat unassuming molecule that nonetheless has a massive impact on practically every aspect of our biology. Nyeo, who has shown herself to be equally multifaceted, seems especially well-suited to the study of this remarkable biomolecule.

Although Nyeo’s work in the life sciences keeps her busy, she finds time to nurture a diverse set of other passions. She took a class on experimental ethics, is working on an original screenplay, and has even picked up a minor in German. Since her sophomore year, she has also been a part of the New Engineering Education Transformation (NEET) program, which provides students with multidisciplinary interests the opportunity to collaborate across departments. Through NEET, currently directed by professor of biological engineering Mark Bathe, Nyeo has been able to pursue her interest in bioengineering research and connect to a vast community of students and professors. Most recently, she has been working within the Bathe BioNano Lab to use DNA to engineer new materials at the nanometer scale.

Nyeo hopes to put her skills to use by pursuing a career in biotechnology. She is currently minoring in management and dreams of one day starting her own company. But she doesn’t want to leave academia behind just yet and has begun working on applications for PhD programs in biology. “I originally came in thinking that I would just go straight into the biotech industry,” Nyeo explains. “And then I realized that I don’t dislike research and that I actually enjoy it.”

As part of her current work in the lab of professor of biology David Bartel, Nyeo investigates how viral infection affects RNA metabolism, and she often finds herself using her computational skills to help postdocs with their data analysis. In fact, one of the things Nyeo has most enjoyed about working as a student researcher is the opportunity to join a network of people who provide one another with support and guidance.

Nyeo’s willingness to help others is perhaps the aspect of her personality that best suits her to the study of RNA. Over the past few decades, researchers have discovered an increasingly large number of therapeutic uses for RNA, including cancer immunotherapy and vaccine development. In the summer of 2022, Nyeo worked as an intern at Eli Lilly and Company, where she helped identify potential targets for RNA therapeutics. She may continue to explore this area of research when she eventually enters the biotech industry. In the meantime, however, she’s finding ways to help people closer to home.

Since her first year, Nyeo has been a part of the MIT Biotech Group. When she first joined, the group had a fairly small undergraduate presence, and most events were geared toward graduate students and postdocs. Nyeo immediately dedicated herself to making the group more welcoming for undergraduates. As the director of the Undergraduate Initiative and later the undergraduate student president, she was a leading architect of a new seminar series in which MIT alumni came to campus to teach undergraduates about biotechnology. “There are a lot of technical terms associated with [biotech],” Nyeo explains. “If you just come in as an undergrad, not knowing what’s happening, that can be a bit daunting.”

Between her research in the Bartel lab and her work with NEET and the MIT Biotech Group, Nyeo doesn’t have a lot of free time, but she dedicates most of it to making MIT a friendlier environment for new students. She promotes research opportunities as a UROP panelist and has worked as an associate advisor since her junior year. She helps first-year students choose and register for classes, works with faculty advisors, and provides moral support to students who are feeling overwhelmed with options. “When I came [to MIT], I also didn’t know what I wanted to do,” Nyeo explains. “Upperclassmen helped me a lot with that process, and I want to pay it forward.”